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A Technical Guide for Wine Producers
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The South African vineyard and wine landscapes: Heritage and development
Dawid Saayman, Extention Specialist, DISTELL, South Africa
Paper presented at the International Symposium on Landscapes of Vines and Wines at the Fontevraud Royal Abbey, Loire Valley, 2 - 4 July 2003.
Key words: vineyard landscape, terroir, heritage, development, South Africa
Ever since the Dutch settlers at the Cape planted the first vines more than 340 years ago, South African vitiviniculture had strong ties with European traditions, the French and German influences being especially strong. Vitiviniculture really started to take form since 1688 with the arrival of the French Huguenots, the Dutch settlers not being traditional vintners. Further expansion was encouraged by successive governors and later greatly stimulated by the British occupation of the Cape in 1806, because of the inaccessibility of Europe to Britain at that stage. Vitiviniculture rapidly became a distinctive part of the Western Cape agricultural landscape, usually associated with the unique Cape-Dutch architecture. The ability of South African producers to achieve world-renowned wine quality standards was demonstrated in the 19th century by the famed Constantia wines. Although heritage (tradition) is principally of human origin, and occupies a very prominent place in vineyard landscapes, South African vineyards also boast unique and very diverse landform and soil landscapes, a natural heritage of geological processes and time, greatly impacting on mesoclimate and vine performance. This enables the production of very diverse types of quality wines, mainly in the relatively small, Mediterranean climate coastal zone, another typical characteristic of South African vineyards and wines landscapes.
Initially, viticulture was practiced and homesteads built in valley floor landscape positions, close to available water. In inland regions, several irrigation schemes were developed, also comprising the use of fertile alluvial soils, a factor not favouring wine quality. Research and improved soil and water management technologies led the way to quality orientated vineyard developments on mountain foothill and ridge positions. A fairly recent phenomenon is the development of new zones at high altitudes and along the coast, mainly in order to benefit from the cooling effect of sea breezes. These developments were made possible by the lifting of a former quota system that in effect prohibited the development of promising new areas and also tended to protect less efficient vitiviniculture. Research on terroir identification and terroir effects on wine character is contributing to the upgrading of existing and development of new areas. The industry also realised that sustainability is an integral part of vineyard landscapes and legislation of an Integrated Production of Wine (IPW) scheme was introduced in 1998, which evaluates the environmental impact of cultural and industrial actions and sets minimum standards in order for grapes and wine to be acceptable by serious buyers. Wine routes were also developed, Stellenbosch being the first in 1971, becoming a very special feature of South African vineyard and wine landscapes and currently regarded as one of the biggest tourist attractions in the Western Cape, greatly contributing to the marketing of local wines.
Introduction
South African viticulture originated in the vicinity of Cape Town at the south-western extremity of the African continent, about 34 degrees southern latitude, which enjoys a Mediterranean climate. It spread fairly rapidly further inland in the higher rainfall zones along the mountain ranges that roughly follow the coast. Still further inland and northwards, vineyards were later established in irrigation schemes along the Breede, Elephants and later also the Orange rivers, mainly dedicated to the production of standard and distilling wines (Fig. 1). In this presentation the focus will be on the classical vineyard and wine landscapes of the Western coastal zone, recognised as the region primarily focused on the production of high quality wines.
Natural heritage
Geology: Although viticulture in the Western Cape is young, the geology is quite old. What can presently be discerned in the landscape is late Precambrian Malmesbury Group shale and shists, deposited c. 1 000-550 million years ago in a marine basin (Theron et al., 1992), presently occurring at 20-200 m altitudes. This deposit was folded and uplifted due to tectonic movement of the Pan African event, which ended c. 550 million years ago, and eroded into rolling hills. Subsequently, intrusions of Cape Granite Suite plutons occurred 600 million and 500 million years ago (Truswell, 1977) at the stage of separation of Gondwanaland into present day Africa, South America, India, Australia and Antartica. A period of erosion and planation of c. 50 million years followed. The surface then subsided and was covered from the north by deep deposits of the Cape Supergroup (400-300 million years ago) and later by the Karoo Supergroup. About 250 million years ago, intensive folding and uplifting occurred, creating the distinctive folded sandstone mountain ranges and valleys of the Cape. Erosion removed large areas of the Cape Supergroup deposits, leaving sandstone remnants like Table Mountain and Simonsberg (1 000-1 300 m altitude), resting on granitic foothills and associated with exposed granite plutons, presently visible as distinctive solitary mountains (Paarl Mountain, Paardeberg: 500-700 m altitude) or ranges of hills (Bottelary, Malmesbury, Darling hills; _200-400 m altitude), usually surrounded by Malmesbury shale landscapes.
Soils: Various weather cycles and several periods of inundation by the sea, together with the pronounced and varied geography of the Western Cape, gave rise to great soil diversity over short distances. The highly regarded reddish and yellowish brown soils are usually associated with granitic hills (Bottelary, Malmesbury and Darling hills; Paarl and Paardeberg mountains) and the granitic footslopes of the sandstone mountains (Table, Hottentots Holland, Helderberg, Stellenbosch, Simonsberg, Groot and Klein Drakenstein, Limietberg mountains; 1 000-1500 m). These soils, at altitudes of 150-400 m, often on steep slopes, are relics of a past, high rainfall, tropical era. They are highly weathered and acid, very stabile and well drained, with a good water holding capacity.
Other soils that formed on granite, occur on gently undulating hills between the mountains and the sea at 20-150 m altitude. This zone was invaded several times by the sea due to land recession and uplifting. The soils are generally duplex in character, consisting of coarse, bleached sand, yellow-brown gravel or ferricrete on wet (gleyed) clay. Extremes in wetness and drought in these soils curtail vigour, but the general consistent performance of vines on these soils over seasons and good exposure to prevailing cool sea breezes can ensure good quality wines.
The gently undulating Malmesbury shale landscapes usually surround the granite plutons and are adjacent to the sandstone on granite mountain ranges. Here, soil types typically vary from stony, weathered rock residual soils on hill crests, to strongly structured soils on mid- and footslopes, but with the weathered shale substrata usually still within reach and to be exploited by vine roots. A notable exception is the Durbanville range of greywacke and phyllitic shale hills (sometimes baked to hornfels by granite intrusion), at 150-450 m altitude. Here, soils are typically reddish-brown, deep, well-drained, with a good water holding capacity, but are not acid like their granite derived peers and are excellent for dry-land wine production. Together with these soil properties, the elevated hills, exposed to sea breezes from two directions, are a highly coveted vineyard landscape, known for high quality grapes.
Another unique landscape, recognised as having high wine quality potential, but presently predominantly utilised for apple production, is the Elgin mountain basin. This basin is Bokkeveld shale, youngest deposit (350-400 million years ago) of the Cape Supergoup, generally at more than 200 m altitude, 10-20 km from the sea and surrounded by tilted sandstone mountain ridges (600-1 000 m). Soils here are generally gravelly topsoil on relatively thin, structured clay layers, on soft, highly weathered shale.
Marine effects: The traditional wine regions along the coastal zone are seldom further than 50 km from the sea, the more reputable areas being 12-15 km distant (Darling, Durbanville and Bottelary hills; Constantia, Helderberg and Simonsberg footslopes). The beneficial effect of prevailing local and synoptic summer breezes and winds, blowing from the sea, is increasingly recognised. An old saying, "a vineyard that can see the sea, is a good vineyard" appears to be evidence in support.
These then are the natural heritage factors that dominated the shaping of the present vineyard and wine landscapes along the coastal regions of the Western Cape. But viticultural terroirs are there to be discovered and developed to their full potential. This started with the European settlement of the Cape, adding the human factors of the present vineyard and wine landscapes.
Human heritage
The Cape of Storms, later the Cape of Good Hope, was settled in 1652 by the Dutch to serve as a half-way station, supplying fresh produce to their East India trading fleet. The commander, Jan van Riebeeck, imported vines in 1655 and the first wine was produced in 1658 from gardens around the fort (Perold, 1936). What can rightly be called the first terroir selection, occurred when the Governor of the Cape Colony, Simon van der Stel, selected the cool and sheltered Constantia area for his vineyards and imported German cultivars in 1705. Wines from this area gained international fame during 1780-1890. However, the Dutch settlers, turned farmers, were not over enthusiastic about viticulture and it needed the arrival of French Huguenots refugees in 1688, to stimulate the young wine industry (Perold, 1936). These immigrants were mainly settled in the Stellenbosch, Franschhoek and Paarl areas and their cultural heritage is still evident here, mainly in the names given to farms. Later, German settlers also made valuable contributions.
Willem Adriaan van der Stel, successor to his father Simon, was an innovative farmer who greatly believed in the development of a wine industry and made notable contributions, inter alia the development of Vergelegen, where 100 000-25 000 vines were planted (Perold, 1936). Like Constantia, Vergelegen and environs are today still reputable wine areas and tourist attractions.
The mid-eighteenth century marked the construction of manor houses on various wine farms, boasting a very unique Cape-Dutch architecture. Of these the still existing manor houses of Constantia, Vergelegen, Neethlingshof, Schoongezicht, Boschendal, Plaisir de Merle, Nederburg, and various others, are fine examples. This proud architectural heritage is a distinctive part of the classical South African vineyard and wine landscapes.
Developments
Vineyards: During the eighteenth century, South African viticulture expanded slowly, without reaching significant heights (Burger, 1977). In 1806, England took the Cape from the Dutch, with a resultant increase in demand for wine. When preference tariffs were introduced in 1813, wine exports increased dramatically and for about 15 years viticulture was greatly stimulated. But the protected English market also created opportunity for unscrupulous merchants to export inferior quality wine, with a resultant drop in prices, a bad reputation of South African wines and a low point in exports in the early 1850's. Exports picked up again because of an oïdium epidemic in Europe, but crashed completely during the rest of the nineteenth century when England cancelled preference tariffs (Burger, 1977). On top of this, phylloxera hit the South African vineyards in 1886, and although readily overcome by building on European experience and importing American rootstock material (Perold, 1936), this disaster compelled many wine farmers to change to deciduous fruit production (Burger, 1977). Nevertheless, the industry picked up again to such an extent that over-production occurred towards the end of the nineteenth century, compelling the formation of co-operative cellars, culminating in 1918 in the establishment of a central Co-operative Wine Farmers Association (KWV). This organisation controlled production by granting quotas, fixed minimum prices and sold surpluses in the form of distilled products on the overseas markets. This guided the industry through the troubled early twentieth century and stimulated growth from 500 000 hl wine in 1918 to 5 million in 1975 (Burger, 1977). However, the quota system also prevented the development of new areas with high wine quality potential, until 1992, when quotas and the regulatory functions of the KWV were abolished. The nineties and beginning of the 21st century saw tremendous improvements in vineyard and wine quality, with exciting new regions being developed, such as areas along the west- and south-western coasts, and the mountain basin of Elgin.
Research: Vitivinicultural research was consolidated and greatly boosted with the inauguration in 1969 of the national Oenological and Viticultural Research Institute (OVRI) on the experimental farm, Nietvoorbij, just outside Stellenbosch. Research was undertaken on virtually all problems in the fields of cultivar evaluation, cultural practices, soil amelioration and nutrition, pathology, entomology, microbiology, wine chemistry and cellar technology (Burger, 1977; Deist, 1997). This placed South Africa amongst the world leaders in research on trellising systems, plant density and foliage management, irrigation, nutrition and soil effects on wine character, and was greatly instrumental to the general increase in vineyard and wine quality experienced towards the end of the twentieth century. It also led inter alia to the publication of a scientific but practical handbook on viticulture in South Africa (Burger & Deist, 1981). In 1994 the OVRI merged with the then Fruit- & Fruit Technology Research Institute (FFTRI) and is currently known as the ARC (Agricultural Research Council) Infruitec-Nietvoorbij Research Institute. Presently research at the Institute is mainly focused on environmental effects and vineyard zonation (Carey, 2001; Bonnardot et al., 2002; Conradie et al., 2002; Woolridge& Beukes, 2003) vine physiology and canopy architecture (Hunter, 2000), optimum ripeness and virus control.
Zonation: The pronounced diversity in South African vineyard and wine landscapes is considered an asset. The effects of different terroirs on wine character have been scientifically verified (Saayman, 1977; Conradie et al., 2002). The importance of zonation and demarcation of areas of origin is accepted by the industry. Zonation is already well developed (Saayman, 1998) and strongly supported by ongoing research (Carey, 2001; Bonnardot et al., 2002; Carey, Archer & Saayman, 2002). The South African ãWine of Origin Schemeà was instituted in 1973 and protects wines of origin and wines made of specific cultivars and/or vintages (Theron, 1998). This scheme complies with EU regulations and addresses principles such as business honesty, factual terms, titles, marketing truths and free participation. The Wine and Spirits board is responsible for the upkeep, administration and running of the Scheme. The practical aspects of viticultural zoning in South Africa was presented at the 4th International Symposium on Viticultural Zoning in Avignon (Saayman, 2002).
Sustainability: Mounting awareness of manås responsibility concerning sustainable practices, led to the development of environmentally friendly practices. The first guidelines for producers were published in 1993. Later, winemaking and packaging were included and the process formalised by legislation in 1998 of an Integrated Production of Wine (IPW) scheme (www.ipw.co.za). What makes this scheme unique is that it is totally inclusive, comprising processes from the establishment of a vineyard, such as soil preparation, all production actions, the wine making process, up to the recyclability of packaging material. A manager was appointed by the Wine and Spirit Board and the Scheme introduced in 2000. It is self-controlled by means of evaluation forms, with spot-check auditing on farms and in cellars by ARC Infruitec-Nietvoorbij officers. Wine and grape buyers can also demand insight into the documentation. More than 99% of all wine grape production is encompassed by the scheme and from the onset it was also supported by chemical firms. Presently, reputed wine cellars and companies refuse to accept any grapes from producers not conforming to IPW standards.
Wine Routes: Wine routes are considered one of the biggest tourist attractions in the Western Cape (http://www.routes.wine.co.za/stellenbosch/welcome.HTM) and a very distinctive feature of the South African vineyard and wine landscapes. The original Stellenbosch Wine Route was founded in 1971 and today represents more than 300 wine and grape producers within the Stellenbosch District of origin. Along the routes, entrances to cellars are clearly indicated with signposts bearing the name of the property and the Wine Route logo. Tastings, cellar tours, wine sales and local and international deliveries are offered. Many of the cellars also have restaurant and/or picnic facilities, allowing relaxation in a traditional Cape wine farm environment, often characterised by a typical Cape-Dutch manor house shaded by oak trees. Although not indigenous, oak trees were already planted in the late 1600ås by Cape Governor Simon van der Stel and have been accepted as traditional. Today they are still very much a distinctive landscape feature in wine villages and on wine farms.
Conclusions
One of the outstanding natural components of the South African vineyard and wine landscape, is its distinctive and diverse topography, characterised by magnificent sandstone mountains on granitic foothill bases, that merge into undulating, shale substrata hills. This diverse topography, together with the geology, gave rise to diverse soil types. These soils are again associated with diverse mesoclimates, the latter created by altitude and the effects of topography on sunlight interception and exposure to prevailing winds, culminating into unique and diverse terroirs. Although the effects of these natural factors on wine character have only fairly recently been scientifically proven, their importance was already realised since the establishment of vitiviniculture at the Cape, the early selection of areas like Constantia, Stellenbosch and Vergelegen serving as examples. Coupled to this, a distinctive human heritage component, with distinctive Dutch agricultural and architectural elements and strong European vitivinicultural influences, developed. This then constitutes the present vineyard and wine landscapes of the Western Cape, which today benefit from a reputable control system that protects defined areas of origin and sets minimum wine quality standards.
These natural and human heritages were further developed by high standing past and ongoing research and, together with the abolishment of measures restricting the development of new, high wine quality areas, were instrumental to the vastly improved South African vitiviniculture landscapes over the last two to three decades. The Integrated Production of Wine (IPW) scheme is a product of local concern over proper protection of these landscapes. It introduced and is continuously developing environmentally friendly practices that will assure sustained vitiviniculture.
The impact of well managed vineyard and wine landscapes on tourism and marketing is also realised and finds expression in well developed and advertised wine routes, with associated recreational and culinary facilities.
References
BONNARDOT, V., PLANCHON, O., CAREY, V. & CAUTENET, S., 2002. Diurnal wind, relative humidity and temperature variation in the Stellenbosch-Groot Drakenstein wine-growing area. S. Afr. J.Enol. Vitic., 23(2), 62-71.
BURGER, J.D., 1977. A review of the South African vitiviniculture and present research in this respect with special reference to the quality of the vintage. Int. Symp. on the Quality of the Vintage, 14-21 Feb. 1977, Cape Town, RSA, 29-41.
BURGER, J. & DEIST, J., (eds.),1981. Wingerdbou in Suid-Afrika. Trio-Rand/S.A. Litho, Nådabeni,.RSA.
CAREY, V., 2001. Spatial characterisation of natural terroir units for viticulture in the Bottelaryberg-Simonsberg-Helderberg winegrowing area. M.Sc. Agric. Thesis, Univ. of Stellenbosch, RSA.
CAREY, V., ARCHER, E. & SAAYMAN, D., 2002. Identification of natural terroir units for viticulture: Stellenbosch, South Africa. In: Proc. IVth Int. Symp. Vitivinicultural Zoning, 17-20 June, Avignon, France.
CONRADIE, W.J., CAREY, V., BONNARDOT, V., SAAYMAN, D. & VAN SCHOOR, L.H., 2002. Effects of different environmental factors on the performance of Sauvignon blanc grapevines in the Stellenbosch/Durbanville districts of South Africa. I. Geology, soil, climate, phenology and grape composition. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic., 23(2), 78-91.
DEIST, J., 1997. LNR-Nietvoorbij Instituut vir Wingerd- en Wynkunde. ån Tegnologiese Perspektief na Veertig Jaar. LNR-Nietvoorbij, P/Sak X5026, Stellenbosch 7599, pp. 112.
HUNTER, J.J., 2000. Implications of seasonal canopy management and growth compensation in grapevines. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 21(2), 81-91.
PEROLD, A.I., 1936. Historical notes on the Cape Wine Industry. In: The Wine Book of South Africa. The Western Province of the Cape, and its Wine Industry. Wine & Spirit Publishers, Stellenbosch, South Africa, pp. 151.
SAAYMAN, D., 1977. The effect of soil and climate on wine quality. International Symposium on the Quality of the Vintage, 14-21 Feb., 1977, Cape Town, RSA, 197-208.
SAAYMAN, 1998. The development of vineyard zonation and demarcation in South Africa. Atti del Simposio Internazionale âTerritorio & Vinoå, 19/24 Maggio, 1998, Siena, Italia, 35-42.
SAAYMAN, D., 2002. Practical aspects of viticultural zoning in South Africa. In: IVth International Symposium on Viticultural Zoning, 17-20 June 2002, Avignon, France.
THERON, K., 1998. Wine of Origin. Wine and Spirit Board, PO Box 2176, Dennesig, Stellenbosch 7601, RSA.
THERON, J.N., GRESSE, P.G., SIEGFRIED, H.P. & ROGERS, J., 1992 The Geology of the Cape Town area. Geological Society of South Africa, Pretoria.
TRUSWELL, J.F., 1977. The Geological Evolution of South Africa. Purnell, Cape Town.
WOOLRIDGE, J., 2000. Geology: A central aspect of terroir. Wynboer 137, http://www.wynboer.co.za/recentarticles/1200geology.php3.
WOOLRIDGE, J., &BEUKES, H., 2003. Topography and solar interception in the Stellenbosch district. A geographic information systems approach. Part I. Landscape, slope and aspect. Wynboer nr. 163, Feb. 2003, 74-76.
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Fig. 7 Examples of typical Cape-Dutch architecture manor houses, with associated oak trees.
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